本文是 2014 年 12 月我在布拉格經濟大學作的名爲‘ Python 數據科學’講座的筆記。歡迎經過 @RadimRehurek 進行提問和評論。css
本次講座的目的是展現一些關於機器學習的高級概念。該筆記中用具體的代碼來作演示,你們能夠在本身的電腦上運行(須要安裝 IPython,以下所示)。html
本次講座的聽衆須要瞭解一些基礎的編程(不必定是 Python),並擁有一點基本的數據挖掘背景。本次講座不是機器學習專家的「高級演講」。python
這些代碼實例建立了一個有效的、可執行的原型系統:一個使用「spam」(垃圾信息)或「ham」(非垃圾信息)對英文手機短信(」短信類型「的英文)進行分類的 app。git
整套代碼使用 Python 語言。 python 是一種在管線(pipeline)的全部環節(I/O、數據清洗重整和預處理、模型訓練和評估)都好用的通用語言。儘管 python 不是惟一選擇,但它靈活、易於開發,性能優越,這得益於它成熟的科學計算生態系統。Python 龐大的、開源生態系統同時避免了任何單一框架或庫的限制(以及相關的信息丟失)。github
$ ipython notebook data_science_python.ipynb
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%matplotlib inline
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import csv
from textblob import TextBlob
import pandas
import sklearn
import cPickle
import numpy as np
from sklearn.feature_extraction.text import CountVectorizer, TfidfTransformer
from sklearn.naive_bayes import MultinomialNB
from sklearn.svm import SVC, LinearSVC
from sklearn.metrics import classification_report, f1_score, accuracy_score, confusion_matrix
from sklearn.pipeline import Pipeline
from sklearn.grid_search import GridSearchCV
from sklearn.cross_validation import StratifiedKFold, cross_val_score, train_test_split
from sklearn.tree import DecisionTreeClassifier
from sklearn.learning_curve import learning_curve
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$ <span class="kw">ls</span> -l data
<span class="kw">total</span> 1352
<span class="kw">-rw-r--r--@</span> 1 kofola staff 477907 Mar 15 2011 SMSSpamCollection
<span class="kw">-rw-r--r--@</span> 1 kofola staff 5868 Apr 18 2011 readme
<span class="kw">-rw-r-----@</span> 1 kofola staff 203415 Dec 1 15:30 smsspamcollection.zip
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messages = [line.rstrip() for line in open('./data/SMSSpamCollection')]
print len(messages)
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for message_no, message in enumerate(messages[:10]):
print message_no, message
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0 ham Go until jurong point, crazy.. Available only in bugis n great world la e buffet... Cine there got amore wat...
1 ham Ok lar... Joking wif u oni...
2 spam Free entry in 2 a wkly comp to win FA Cup final tkts 21st May 2005. Text FA to 87121 to receive entry question(std txt rate)T&C's apply 08452810075over18's
3 ham U dun say so early hor... U c already then say...
4 ham Nah I don't think he goes to usf, he lives around here though
5 spam FreeMsg Hey there darling it's been 3 week's now and no word back! I'd like some fun you up for it still? Tb ok! XxX std chgs to send, £1.50 to rcv
6 ham Even my brother is not like to speak with me. They treat me like aids patent.
7 ham As per your request 'Melle Melle (Oru Minnaminunginte Nurungu Vettam)' has been set as your callertune for all Callers. Press *9 to copy your friends Callertune
8 spam WINNER!! As a valued network customer you have been selected to receivea £900 prize reward! To claim call 09061701461. Claim code KL341. Valid 12 hours only.
9 spam Had your mobile 11 months or more? U R entitled to Update to the latest colour mobiles with camera for Free! Call The Mobile Update Co FREE on 08002986030
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messages = pandas.read_csv('./data/SMSSpamCollection', sep='t', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE,
names=["label", "message"])
print messages
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label message
0 ham Go until jurong point, crazy.. Available only ...
1 ham Ok lar... Joking wif u oni...
2 spam Free entry in 2 a wkly comp to win FA Cup fina...
3 ham U dun say so early hor... U c already then say...
4 ham Nah I don't think he goes to usf, he lives aro...
5 spam FreeMsg Hey there darling it's been 3 week's n...
6 ham Even my brother is not like to speak with me. ...
7 ham As per your request 'Melle Melle (Oru Minnamin...
8 spam WINNER!! As a valued network customer you have...
9 spam Had your mobile 11 months or more? U R entitle...
10 ham I'm gonna be home soon and i don't want to tal...
11 spam SIX chances to win CASH! From 100 to 20,000 po...
12 spam URGENT! You have won a 1 week FREE membership ...
13 ham I've been searching for the right words to tha...
14 ham I HAVE A DATE ON SUNDAY WITH WILL!!
15 spam XXXMobileMovieClub: To use your credit, click ...
16 ham Oh k...i'm watching here:)
17 ham Eh u remember how 2 spell his name... Yes i di...
18 ham Fine if thats the way u feel. Thats the way ...
19 spam England v Macedonia - dont miss the goals/team...
20 ham Is that seriously how you spell his name?
21 ham I‘m going to try for 2 months ha ha only joking
22 ham So ü pay first lar... Then when is da stock co...
23 ham Aft i finish my lunch then i go str down lor. ...
24 ham Ffffffffff. Alright no way I can meet up with ...
25 ham Just forced myself to eat a slice. I'm really ...
26 ham Lol your always so convincing.
27 ham Did you catch the bus ? Are you frying an egg ...
28 ham I'm back &amp; we're packing the car now, I'll...
29 ham Ahhh. Work. I vaguely remember that! What does...
... ... ...
5544 ham Armand says get your ass over to epsilon
5545 ham U still havent got urself a jacket ah?
5546 ham I'm taking derek &amp; taylor to walmart, if I...
5547 ham Hi its in durban are you still on this number
5548 ham Ic. There are a lotta childporn cars then.
5549 spam Had your contract mobile 11 Mnths? Latest Moto...
5550 ham No, I was trying it all weekend ;V
5551 ham You know, wot people wear. T shirts, jumpers, ...
5552 ham Cool, what time you think you can get here?
5553 ham Wen did you get so spiritual and deep. That's ...
5554 ham Have a safe trip to Nigeria. Wish you happines...
5555 ham Hahaha..use your brain dear
5556 ham Well keep in mind I've only got enough gas for...
5557 ham Yeh. Indians was nice. Tho it did kane me off ...
5558 ham Yes i have. So that's why u texted. Pshew...mi...
5559 ham No. I meant the calculation is the same. That ...
5560 ham Sorry, I'll call later
5561 ham if you aren't here in the next &lt;#&gt; hou...
5562 ham Anything lor. Juz both of us lor.
5563 ham Get me out of this dump heap. My mom decided t...
5564 ham Ok lor... Sony ericsson salesman... I ask shuh...
5565 ham Ard 6 like dat lor.
5566 ham Why don't you wait 'til at least wednesday to ...
5567 ham Huh y lei...
5568 spam REMINDER FROM O2: To get 2.50 pounds free call...
5569 spam This is the 2nd time we have tried 2 contact u...
5570 ham Will ü b going to esplanade fr home?
5571 ham Pity, * was in mood for that. So...any other s...
5572 ham The guy did some bitching but I acted like i'd...
5573 ham Rofl. Its true to its name
[5574 rows x 2 columns]
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messages.groupby('label').describe()
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message
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label | ||
ham | count | 4827 |
unique | 4518 | |
top | Sorry, I’ll call later | |
freq | 30 | |
spam | count | 747 |
unique | 653 | |
top | Please call our customer service representativ… | |
freq | 4 |
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messages['length'] = messages['message'].map(lambda text: len(text))
print messages.head()
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label message length
0 ham Go until jurong point, crazy.. Available only ... 111
1 ham Ok lar... Joking wif u oni... 29
2 spam Free entry in 2 a wkly comp to win FA Cup fina... 155
3 ham U dun say so early hor... U c already then say... 49
4 ham Nah I don't think he goes to usf, he lives aro... 61
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messages.length.plot(bins=20, kind='hist')
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<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x10dd7a990>
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print list(messages.message[messages.length > 900])
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["For me the love should start with attraction.i should feel that I need her every time
around me.she should be the first thing which comes in my thoughts.I would start the day and
end it with her.she should be there every time I dream.love will be then when my every
breath has her name.my life should happen around her.my life will be named to her.I would
cry for her.will give all my happiness and take all her sorrows.I will be ready to fight
with anyone for her.I will be in love when I will be doing the craziest things for her.love
will be when I don't have to proove anyone that my girl is the most beautiful lady on the
whole planet.I will always be singing praises for her.love will be when I start up making
chicken curry and end up makiing sambar.life will be the most beautiful then.will get every
morning and thank god for the day because she is with me.I would like to say a lot..will
tell later.."]
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messages.hist(column='length', by='label', bins=50)
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def split_into_tokens(message):
message = unicode(message, 'utf8') # convert bytes into proper unicode
return TextBlob(message).words
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messages.message.head()
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0 Go until jurong point, crazy.. Available only ...
1 Ok lar... Joking wif u oni...
2 Free entry in 2 a wkly comp to win FA Cup fina...
3 U dun say so early hor... U c already then say...
4 Nah I don't think he goes to usf, he lives aro...
Name: message, dtype: object
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messages.message.head().apply(split_into_tokens)
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0 [Go, until, jurong, point, crazy, Available, o...
1 [Ok, lar, Joking, wif, u, oni]
2 [Free, entry, in, 2, a, wkly, comp, to, win, F...
3 [U, dun, say, so, early, hor, U, c, already, t...
4 [Nah, I, do, n't, think, he, goes, to, usf, he...
Name: message, dtype: object
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換句話說,咱們想對文本進行更好的標準化。編程
咱們使用 textblob 獲取 part-of-speech (POS) 標籤:數組
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TextBlob("Hello world, how is it going?").tags # list of (word, POS) pairs
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[(u'Hello', u'UH'),
(u'world', u'NN'),
(u'how', u'WRB'),
(u'is', u'VBZ'),
(u'it', u'PRP'),
(u'going', u'VBG')]
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def split_into_lemmas(message):
message = unicode(message, 'utf8').lower()
words = TextBlob(message).words
# for each word, take its "base form" = lemma
return [word.lemma for word in words]
messages.message.head().apply(split_into_lemmas)
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0 [go, until, jurong, point, crazy, available, o...
1 [ok, lar, joking, wif, u, oni]
2 [free, entry, in, 2, a, wkly, comp, to, win, f...
3 [u, dun, say, so, early, hor, u, c, already, t...
4 [nah, i, do, n't, think, he, go, to, usf, he, ...
Name: message, dtype: object
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如今,咱們將每條消息(詞幹列表)轉換成機器學習模型能夠理解的向量。網絡
用詞袋模型完成這項工做須要三個步驟:app
每一個向量的維度等於 SMS 語料庫中包含的獨立詞的數量。
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bow_transformer = CountVectorizer(analyzer=split_into_lemmas).fit(messages['message'])
print len(bow_transformer.vocabulary_)
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8874
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這裏咱們使用強大的 python 機器學習訓練庫 scikit-learn (sklearn),它包含大量的方法和選項。
咱們取一個信息並使用新的 bow_tramsformer 獲取向量形式的詞袋模型計數:
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message4 = messages['message'][3]
print message4
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U dun say so early hor... U c already then say...
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bow4 = bow_transformer.transform([message4])
print bow4
print bow4.shape
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(0, 1158) 1
(0, 1899) 1
(0, 2897) 1
(0, 2927) 1
(0, 4021) 1
(0, 6736) 2
(0, 7111) 1
(0, 7698) 1
(0, 8013) 2
(1, 8874)
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message 4 中有 9 個獨立詞,它們中的兩個出現了兩次,其他的只出現了一次。可用性檢測,哪些詞出現了兩次?
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print bow_transformer.get_feature_names()[6736]
print bow_transformer.get_feature_names()[8013]
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say
u
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整個 SMS 語料庫的詞袋計數是一個龐大的稀疏矩陣:
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messages_bow = bow_transformer.transform(messages['message'])
print 'sparse matrix shape:', messages_bow.shape
print 'number of non-zeros:', messages_bow.nnz
print 'sparsity: %.2f%%' % (100.0 * messages_bow.nnz / (messages_bow.shape[0] * messages_bow.shape[1]))
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sparse matrix shape: (5574, 8874)
number of non-zeros: 80272
sparsity: 0.16%
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最終,計數後,使用 scikit-learn 的 TFidfTransformer 實現的 TF-IDF 完成詞語加權和歸一化。
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tfidf_transformer = TfidfTransformer().fit(messages_bow)
tfidf4 = tfidf_transformer.transform(bow4)
print tfidf4
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(0, 8013) 0.305114653686
(0, 7698) 0.225299911221
(0, 7111) 0.191390347987
(0, 6736) 0.523371210191
(0, 4021) 0.456354991921
(0, 2927) 0.32967579251
(0, 2897) 0.303693312742
(0, 1899) 0.24664322833
(0, 1158) 0.274934159477
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單詞 「u」 的 IDF(逆向文件頻率)是什麼?單詞「university」的 IDF 又是什麼?
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print tfidf_transformer.idf_[bow_transformer.vocabulary_['u']]
print tfidf_transformer.idf_[bow_transformer.vocabulary_['university']]
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2.85068150539
8.23975323521
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將整個 bag-of-words 語料庫轉化爲 TF-IDF 語料庫。
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messages_tfidf = tfidf_transformer.transform(messages_bow)
print messages_tfidf.shape
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(5574, 8874)
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咱們使用向量形式的信息來訓練 spam/ham 分類器。這部分很簡單,有不少實現訓練算法的庫文件。
這裏咱們使用 scikit-learn,首先選擇 Naive Bayes 分類器:
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%time spam_detector = MultinomialNB().fit(messages_tfidf, messages['label'])
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CPU times: user 4.51 ms, sys: 987 µs, total: 5.49 ms
Wall time: 4.77 ms
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咱們來試着分類一個隨機信息:
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print 'predicted:', spam_detector.predict(tfidf4)[0]
print 'expected:', messages.label[3]
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predicted: ham
expected: ham
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太棒了!你也能夠用本身的文本試試。
有一個很天然的問題是:咱們能夠正確分辨多少信息?
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all_predictions = spam_detector.predict(messages_tfidf)
print all_predictions
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['ham' 'ham' 'spam' ..., 'ham' 'ham' 'ham']
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print 'accuracy', accuracy_score(messages['label'], all_predictions)
print 'confusion matrixn', confusion_matrix(messages['label'], all_predictions)
print '(row=expected, col=predicted)'
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accuracy 0.969501255831
confusion matrix
[[4827 0]
[ 170 577]]
(row=expected, col=predicted)
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plt.matshow(confusion_matrix(messages['label'], all_predictions), cmap=plt.cm.binary, interpolation='nearest')
plt.title('confusion matrix')
plt.colorbar()
plt.ylabel('expected label')
plt.xlabel('predicted label')
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print classification_report(messages['label'], all_predictions)
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precision recall f1-score support
ham 0.97 1.00 0.98 4827
spam 1.00 0.77 0.87 747
avg / total 0.97 0.97 0.97 5574
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有至關多的指標均可以用來評估模型性能,至於哪一個最合適是由任務決定的。好比,將「spam」錯誤預測爲「ham」的成本遠低於將「ham」錯誤預測爲「spam」的成本。
在上述「評價」中,咱們犯了個大忌。爲了簡單的演示,咱們使用訓練數據進行了準確性評估。永遠不要評估你的訓練數據。這是錯誤的。
這樣的評估方法不能告訴咱們模型的實際預測能力,若是咱們記住訓練期間的每一個例子,訓練的準確率將很是接近 100%,可是咱們不能用它來分類任何新信息。
一個正確的作法是將數據分爲訓練集和測試集,在模型擬合和調參時只能使用訓練數據,不能以任何方式使用測試數據,經過這個方法確保模型沒有「做弊」,最終使用測試數據評價模型能夠表明模型真正的預測性能。
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msg_train, msg_test, label_train, label_test =
train_test_split(messages['message'], messages['label'], test_size=0.2)
print len(msg_train), len(msg_test), len(msg_train) + len(msg_test)
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4459 1115 5574
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讓咱們回顧整個流程,將全部步驟放入 scikit-learn 的 Pipeline 中:
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def split_into_lemmas(message):
message = unicode(message, 'utf8').lower()
words = TextBlob(message).words
# for each word, take its "base form" = lemma
return [word.lemma for word in words]
pipeline = Pipeline([
('bow', CountVectorizer(analyzer=split_into_lemmas)), # strings to token integer counts
('tfidf', TfidfTransformer()), # integer counts to weighted TF-IDF scores
('classifier', MultinomialNB()), # train on TF-IDF vectors w/ Naive Bayes classifier
])
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在這個例子裏,一切進展順利:
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scores = cross_val_score(pipeline, # steps to convert raw messages into models
msg_train, # training data
label_train, # training labels
cv=10, # split data randomly into 10 parts: 9 for training, 1 for scoring
scoring='accuracy', # which scoring metric?
n_jobs=-1, # -1 = use all cores = faster
)
print scores
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[ 0.93736018 0.96420582 0.94854586 0.94183445 0.96412556 0.94382022
0.94606742 0.96404494 0.94831461 0.94606742]
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得分確實比訓練所有數據時差一點點( 5574 個訓練例子中,準確性 0.97),可是它們至關穩定:
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print scores.mean(), scores.std()
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0.9504386476 0.00947200821389
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咱們天然會問,如何改進這個模型?這個得分已經很高了,可是咱們一般如何改進模型呢?
換句話說:
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def plot_learning_curve(estimator, title, X, y, ylim=None, cv=None,
n_jobs=-1, train_sizes=np.linspace(.1, 1.0, 5)):
"""
Generate a simple plot of the test and traning learning curve.
Parameters
----------
estimator : object type that implements the "fit" and "predict" methods
An object of that type which is cloned for each validation.
title : string
Title for the chart.
X : array-like, shape (n_samples, n_features)
Training vector, where n_samples is the number of samples and
n_features is the number of features.
y : array-like, shape (n_samples) or (n_samples, n_features), optional
Target relative to X for classification or regression;
None for unsupervised learning.
ylim : tuple, shape (ymin, ymax), optional
Defines minimum and maximum yvalues plotted.
cv : integer, cross-validation generator, optional
If an integer is passed, it is the number of folds (defaults to 3).
Specific cross-validation objects can be passed, see
sklearn.cross_validation module for the list of possible objects
n_jobs : integer, optional
Number of jobs to run in parallel (default 1).
"""
plt.figure()
plt.title(title)
if ylim is not None:
plt.ylim(*ylim)
plt.xlabel("Training examples")
plt.ylabel("Score")
train_sizes, train_scores, test_scores = learning_curve(
estimator, X, y, cv=cv, n_jobs=n_jobs, train_sizes=train_sizes)
train_scores_mean = np.mean(train_scores, axis=1)
train_scores_std = np.std(train_scores, axis=1)
test_scores_mean = np.mean(test_scores, axis=1)
test_scores_std = np.std(test_scores, axis=1)
plt.grid()
plt.fill_between(train_sizes, train_scores_mean - train_scores_std,
train_scores_mean + train_scores_std, alpha=0.1,
color="r")
plt.fill_between(train_sizes, test_scores_mean - test_scores_std,
test_scores_mean + test_scores_std, alpha=0.1, color="g")
plt.plot(train_sizes, train_scores_mean, 'o-', color="r",
label="Training score")
plt.plot(train_sizes, test_scores_mean, 'o-', color="g",
label="Cross-validation score")
plt.legend(loc="best")
return plt
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%time plot_learning_curve(pipeline, "accuracy vs. training set size", msg_train, label_train, cv=5)
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CPU times: user 382 ms, sys: 83.1 ms, total: 465 ms
Wall time: 28.5 s
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<module 'matplotlib.pyplot' from '/Volumes/work/workspace/vew/sklearn_intro/lib/python2.7/site-packages/matplotlib/pyplot.pyc'>
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隨着性能的提高,訓練和交叉驗證都表現良好,咱們發現因爲數據量較少,這個模型難以足夠複雜/靈活地捕獲全部的細微差異。在這種特殊案例中,無論怎樣作精度都很高,這個問題看起來不是很明顯。
關於這一點,咱們有兩個選擇:
在過去的幾年裏,隨着收集大規模訓練數據愈來愈容易,機器愈來愈快。方法 1 變得愈來愈流行(更簡單的算法,更多的數據)。簡單的算法(如 Naive Bayes)也有更容易解釋的額外優點(相對一些更復雜的黑箱模型,如神經網絡)。
到目前爲止,咱們看到的只是冰山一角,還有許多其它參數須要調整。好比使用什麼算法進行訓練。
上面咱們已經使用了 Navie Bayes,可是 scikit-learn 支持許多分類器:支持向量機、最鄰近算法、決策樹、Ensamble 方法等…
咱們會問:IDF 加權對準確性有什麼影響?消耗額外成本進行詞形還原(與只用純文字相比)真的會有效果嗎?
讓咱們來看看:
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params = {
'tfidf__use_idf': (True, False),
'bow__analyzer': (split_into_lemmas, split_into_tokens),
}
grid = GridSearchCV(
pipeline, # pipeline from above
params, # parameters to tune via cross validation
refit=True, # fit using all available data at the end, on the best found param combination
n_jobs=-1, # number of cores to use for parallelization; -1 for "all cores"
scoring='accuracy', # what score are we optimizing?
cv=StratifiedKFold(label_train, n_folds=5), # what type of cross validation to use
)
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%time nb_detector = grid.fit(msg_train, label_train)
print nb_detector.grid_scores_
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CPU times: user 4.09 s, sys: 291 ms, total: 4.38 s
Wall time: 20.2 s
[mean: 0.94752, std: 0.00357, params: {'tfidf__use_idf': True, 'bow__analyzer': <function split_into_lemmas at 0x1131e8668>}, mean: 0.92958, std: 0.00390, params: {'tfidf__use_idf': False, 'bow__analyzer': <function split_into_lemmas at 0x1131e8668>}, mean: 0.94528, std: 0.00259, params: {'tfidf__use_idf': True, 'bow__analyzer': <function split_into_tokens at 0x11270b7d0>}, mean: 0.92868, std: 0.00240, params: {'tfidf__use_idf': False, 'bow__analyzer': <function split_into_tokens at 0x11270b7d0>}]
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(首先顯示最佳參數組合:在這個案例中是使用 idf=True 和 analyzer=split_into_lemmas 的參數組合)
快速合理性檢查
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print nb_detector.predict_proba(["Hi mom, how are you?"])[0]
print nb_detector.predict_proba(["WINNER! Credit for free!"])[0]
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[ 0.99383955 0.00616045]
[ 0.29663109 0.70336891]
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predict_proba 返回每類(ham,spam)的預測機率。在第一個例子中,消息被預測爲 ham 的機率 >99%,被預測爲 spam 的機率 <1%。若是進行選擇模型會認爲信息是 」ham「:
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print nb_detector.predict(["Hi mom, how are you?"])[0]
print nb_detector.predict(["WINNER! Credit for free!"])[0]
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ham
spam
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在訓練期間沒有用到的測試集的總體得分:
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predictions = nb_detector.predict(msg_test)
print confusion_matrix(label_test, predictions)
print classification_report(label_test, predictions)
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[[973 0]
[ 46 96]]
precision recall f1-score support
ham 0.95 1.00 0.98 973
spam 1.00 0.68 0.81 142
avg / total 0.96 0.96 0.96 1115
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讓咱們嘗試另外一個分類器:支持向量機(SVM)。SVM 能夠很是迅速的獲得結果,它所須要的參數調整也不多(雖然比 Navie Bayes 稍多一點),在處理文本數據方面它是個好的起點。
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pipeline_svm = Pipeline([
('bow', CountVectorizer(analyzer=split_into_lemmas)),
('tfidf', TfidfTransformer()),
('classifier', SVC()), # <== change here
])
# pipeline parameters to automatically explore and tune
param_svm = [
{'classifier__C': [1, 10, 100, 1000], 'classifier__kernel': ['linear']},
{'classifier__C': [1, 10, 100, 1000], 'classifier__gamma': [0.001, 0.0001], 'classifier__kernel': ['rbf']},
]
grid_svm = GridSearchCV(
pipeline_svm, # pipeline from above
param_grid=param_svm, # parameters to tune via cross validation
refit=True, # fit using all data, on the best detected classifier
n_jobs=-1, # number of cores to use for parallelization; -1 for "all cores"
scoring='accuracy', # what score are we optimizing?
cv=StratifiedKFold(label_train, n_folds=5), # what type of cross validation to use
)
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%time svm_detector = grid_svm.fit(msg_train, label_train) # find the best combination from param_svm
print svm_detector.grid_scores_
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CPU times: user 5.24 s, sys: 170 ms, total: 5.41 s
Wall time: 1min 8s
[mean: 0.98677, std: 0.00259, params: {'classifier__kernel': 'linear', 'classifier__C': 1}, mean: 0.98654, std: 0.00100, params: {'classifier__kernel': 'linear', 'classifier__C': 10}, mean: 0.98654, std: 0.00100, params: {'classifier__kernel': 'linear', 'classifier__C': 100}, mean: 0.98654, std: 0.00100, params: {'classifier__kernel': 'linear', 'classifier__C': 1000}, mean: 0.86432, std: 0.00006, params: {'classifier__gamma': 0.001, 'classifier__kernel': 'rbf', 'classifier__C': 1}, mean: 0.86432, std: 0.00006, params: {'classifier__gamma': 0.0001, 'classifier__kernel': 'rbf', 'classifier__C': 1}, mean: 0.86432, std: 0.00006, params: {'classifier__gamma': 0.001, 'classifier__kernel': 'rbf', 'classifier__C': 10}, mean: 0.86432, std: 0.00006, params: |