當發佈python第三方package時,並不但願代碼中全部的函數或者class能夠被外部import,在__init__.py中添加__all__屬性,該list中填寫能夠import的類或者函數名, 能夠起到限制的import的做用, 防止外部import其餘函數或者類。javascript
#!/usr/bin/env python # -*- coding: utf-8 -*- from base import APIBase from client import Client from decorator import interface, export, stream from server import Server from storage import Storage from util import (LogFormatter, disable_logging_to_stderr, enable_logging_to_kids, info) __all__ = ['APIBase', 'Client', 'LogFormatter', 'Server', 'Storage', 'disable_logging_to_stderr', 'enable_logging_to_kids', 'export', 'info', 'interface', 'stream']
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with語句須要支持上下文管理協議的對象, 上下文管理協議包含__enter__和__exit__兩個方法。 with語句創建運行時上下文須要經過這兩個方法執行進入和退出操做。java
其中上下文表達式是跟在with以後的表達式, 該表達式返回一個上下文管理對象。python
# 常見with使用場景 with open("test.txt", "r") as my_file: # 注意, 是__enter__()方法的返回值賦值給了my_file, for line in my_file: print line
詳細原理能夠查看這篇文章, 淺談 Python 的 with 語句。安全
知道具體原理,咱們能夠自定義支持上下文管理協議的類,類中實現__enter__和__exit__方法。閉包
#!/usr/bin/env python # -*- coding: utf-8 -*- class MyWith(object): def __init__(self): print "__init__ method" def __enter__(self): print "__enter__ method" return self # 返回對象給as後的變量 def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback): print "__exit__ method" if exc_traceback is None: print "Exited without Exception" return True else: print "Exited with Exception" return False def test_with(): with MyWith() as my_with: print "running my_with" print "------分割線-----" with MyWith() as my_with: print "running before Exception" raise Exception print "running after Exception" if __name__ == '__main__': test_with()
執行結果以下:app
__init__ method __enter__ method running my_with __exit__ method Exited without Exception ------分割線----- __init__ method __enter__ method running before Exception __exit__ method Exited with Exception Traceback (most recent call last): File "bin/python", line 34, in <module> exec(compile(__file__f.read(), __file__, "exec")) File "test_with.py", line 33, in <module> test_with() File "test_with.py", line 28, in test_with raise Exception Exception
證實了會先執行__enter__方法, 而後調用with內的邏輯, 最後執行__exit__作退出處理, 而且, 即便出現異常也能正常退出函數
相對filter而言, map和reduce使用的會更頻繁一些, filter正如其名字, 按照某種規則過濾掉一些元素。學習
#!/usr/bin/env python # -*- coding: utf-8 -*- lst = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] # 全部奇數都會返回True, 偶數會返回False被過濾掉 print filter(lambda x: x % 2 != 0, lst) #輸出結果 [1, 3, 5]
當條件知足時, 返回的爲等號後面的變量, 不然返回else後語句。this
lst = [1, 2, 3] new_lst = lst[0] if lst is not None else None print new_lst # 打印結果 1
使用裝飾器實現簡單的單例模式
# 單例裝飾器 def singleton(cls): instances = dict() # 初始爲空 def _singleton(*args, **kwargs): if cls not in instances: #若是不存在, 則建立並放入字典 instances[cls] = cls(*args, **kwargs) return instances[cls] return _singleton @singleton class Test(object): pass if __name__ == '__main__': t1 = Test() t2 = Test() # 二者具備相同的地址 print t1, t2
類中兩種經常使用的裝飾, 首先區分一下他們:
#!/usr/bin/env python # -*- coding: utf-8 -*- class A(object): # 普通成員函數 def foo(self, x): print "executing foo(%s, %s)" % (self, x) @classmethod # 使用classmethod進行裝飾 def class_foo(cls, x): print "executing class_foo(%s, %s)" % (cls, x) @staticmethod # 使用staticmethod進行裝飾 def static_foo(x): print "executing static_foo(%s)" % x def test_three_method(): obj = A() # 直接調用噗通的成員方法 obj.foo("para") # 此處obj對象做爲成員函數的隱式參數, 就是self obj.class_foo("para") # 此處類做爲隱式參數被傳入, 就是cls A.class_foo("para") #更直接的類方法調用 obj.static_foo("para") # 靜態方法並無任何隱式參數, 可是要經過對象或者類進行調用 A.static_foo("para") if __name__ == '__main__': test_three_method() # 函數輸出 executing foo(<__main__.A object at 0x100ba4e10>, para) executing class_foo(<class '__main__.A'>, para) executing class_foo(<class '__main__.A'>, para) executing static_foo(para) executing static_foo(para)
將property與裝飾器結合實現屬性私有化(更簡單安全的實現get和set方法)。
#python內建函數 property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)
fget是獲取屬性的值的函數,fset是設置屬性值的函數,fdel是刪除屬性的函數,doc是一個字符串(像註釋同樣)。從實現來看,這些參數都是可選的。
property有三個方法getter(), setter()和delete() 來指定fget, fset和fdel。 這表示如下這行:
class Student(object): @property #至關於property.getter(score) 或者property(score) def score(self): return self._score @score.setter #至關於score = property.setter(score) def score(self, value): if not isinstance(value, int): raise ValueError('score must be an integer!') if value < 0 or value > 100: raise ValueError('score must between 0 ~ 100!') self._score = value
#!/usr/bin/env python # -*- coding: utf-8 -*- class TestIter(object): def __init__(self): self.lst = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] def read(self): for ele in xrange(len(self.lst)): yield ele def __iter__(self): return self.read() def __str__(self): return ','.join(map(str, self.lst)) __repr__ = __str__ def test_iter(): obj = TestIter() for num in obj: print num print obj if __name__ == '__main__': test_iter()
partial使用上很像C++中仿函數(函數對象)。
在stackoverflow給出了相似與partial的運行方式:
def partial(func, *part_args): def wrapper(*extra_args): args = list(part_args) args.extend(extra_args) return func(*args) return wrapper
利用用閉包的特性綁定預先綁定一些函數參數,返回一個可調用的變量, 直到真正的調用執行:
#!/usr/bin/env python # -*- coding: utf-8 -*- from functools import partial def sum(a, b): return a + b def test_partial(): fun = partial(sum, 2) # 事先綁定一個參數, fun成爲一個只須要一個參數的可調用變量 print fun(3) # 實現執行的便是sum(2, 3) if __name__ == '__main__': test_partial() # 執行結果 5
eval我理解爲一種內嵌的python解釋器(這種解釋可能會有誤差), 會解釋字符串爲對應的代碼並執行, 而且將執行結果返回。
看一下下面這個例子:
#!/usr/bin/env python # -*- coding: utf-8 -*- def test_first(): return 3 def test_second(num): return num action = { # 能夠看作是一個sandbox "para": 5, "test_first" : test_first, "test_second": test_second } def test_eavl(): condition = "para == 5 and test_second(test_first) > 5" res = eval(condition, action) # 解釋condition並根據action對應的動做執行 print res if __name__ == '_
#!/usr/bin/env python # -*- coding: utf-8 -*- def test_first(): print "hello" def test_second(): test_first() print "second" def test_third(): print "third" action = { "test_second": test_second, "test_third": test_third } def test_exec(): exec "test_second" in action if __name__ == '__main__': test_exec() # 沒法看到執行結果
getattr(object, name[, default])返回對象的命名屬性,屬性名必須是字符串。若是字符串是對象的屬性名之一,結果就是該屬性的值。例如, getattr(x, ‘foobar’) 等價於 x.foobar。 若是屬性名不存在,若是有默認值則返回默認值,不然觸發 AttributeError 。
# 使用範例 class TestGetAttr(object): test = "test attribute" def say(self): print "test method" def test_getattr(): my_test = TestGetAttr() try: print getattr(my_test, "test") except AttributeError: print "Attribute Error!" try: getattr(my_test, "say")() except AttributeError: # 沒有該屬性, 且沒有指定返回值的狀況下 print "Method Error!" if __name__ == '__main__': test_getattr() # 輸出結果 test attribute test method
def process_command_line(argv): """ Return a 2-tuple: (settings object, args list). `argv` is a list of arguments, or `None` for ``sys.argv[1:]``. """ if argv is None: argv = sys.argv[1:] # initialize the parser object: parser = optparse.OptionParser( formatter=optparse.TitledHelpFormatter(width=78), add_help_option=None) # define options here: parser.add_option( # customized description; put --help last '-h', '--help', action='help', help='Show this help message and exit.') settings, args = parser.parse_args(argv) # check number of arguments, verify values, etc.: if args: parser.error('program takes no command-line arguments; ' '"%s" ignored.' % (args,)) # further process settings & args if necessary return settings, args def main(argv=None): settings, args = process_command_line(argv) # application code here, like: # run(settings, args) return 0 # success if __name__ == '__main__': status = main() sys.exit(status)
# 從csv中讀取文件, 基本和傳統文件讀取相似 import csv with open('data.csv', 'rb') as f: reader = csv.reader(f) for row in reader: print row # 向csv文件寫入 import csv with open( 'data.csv', 'wb') as f: writer = csv.writer(f) writer.writerow(['name', 'address', 'age']) # 單行寫入 data = [ ( 'xiaoming ','china','10'), ( 'Lily', 'USA', '12')] writer.writerows(data) # 多行寫入
只發一張網上的圖, 而後查文檔就行了, 這個是記不住的
一個很是好用, 不少人又不知道的功能:
>>> name = "andrew" >>> "my name is {name}".format(name=name) 'my name is andrew'